Us, the excitation is strongly confined to the focal plane. This

Us, the excitation is strongly confined to the focal plane. This confinement of light excitation is particularly relevant to avoid off-target toxicities. For example, in the treatment of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), TP excitation allows for the preservation of healthy tissues that have absorbed some PS and lie within the optical beam path, while still allowing for effective treatment of the target site [62]. Starkey et al. [63] demonstrated in murine xenograft models that GS-4059MedChemExpress GS-4059 TP-PDT could efficiently be used in vivo to induce tumor regression at depth. They SynergisidinMedChemExpress Cyanein showed that irradiating the mouse from the ventral side could treat a tumor located on the dorsal side. The first studies of TP excited PS were reported in the 1980’s, and were performed mainly using Nd:YAG lasers [64]. These results were controversial because ambient water molecules efficiently absorb the Nd:YAG laser emission (1064 nm) and induce hyperthermia in tissues, as was shown by Marchesini et al. [65]. In 1995, Lenz et al conducted a study of TP activated PDT in rat ears, and compared several PS including hematoporphyrin derivative (HPD) and phtalocyanine while controlling for the hyperthermia effect. Even though fluorescence intensity measurements demonstrated that TP processes could excite the PS, no cell killing was observed in these studies [66]. This pointed to the fact that TP excitationhttp://www.thno.orgTheranostics 2016, Vol. 6, Issueof a commonly used PS was not sufficient to induce PDT phototoxicity in vivo. Following this study, several commonly used PSs were investigated for TP-PDT, but the results mainly demonstrated that the efficiency was too low to induce cytotoxicity. Hence, commonly used PSs including PpIX, Photofrin or Visudyne, cannot be considered serious candidates for TP-PDT [67-69]. Several approaches have been investigated to improve the PS-TP absorption cross section [70] and during the last decade, several newly designed molecules have been synthesized as summarized in Table 1. The TP absorptioncross-section as well as the singlet oxygen generation quantum yield have to be considered when evaluating the overall utility of the newly designed PSs for type II TP-PDT. An effective TP-PDT agent requires both the maximal TP absorption cross-section (gold nanorods for example) and a sufficient 1O2 quantum yield (porphyrin derivatives, for example). Despite a noteworthy increase in the TP absorption cross-section, the overall anti-tumor PDT efficacy usually remains low thereby limiting the use of TP-PDT.Figure 5: A. Three different ways to excite PSs for PDT using NIR radiation. Method 1 relies on direct two-photon excitation of the PS that, once excited, can undergo type I or type II photodynamic processes involving reactive molecular species and singlet oxygen. Methods 2 and 3 involve a nanotransducer. In the second scenario, the nanotransducer absorbs the NIR radiation through two-photon processes and transfers part of the energy to excite the PS either through a radiative or a non-radiative mechanism. The nanotransducers involved may be either organic chromophores that have a high TP-absorption cross-section, or optically active nanoparticulate entities such as Gold Nanorods (GNR), quantum dots (QD) or carbon quantum dots (CQD). Method 3 illustrates the use of up-converting nanoparticles that successively absorb two NIR photons through a metastable energy state and transfer part of this energy to the PS. B. This figure illustrates three ways t.Us, the excitation is strongly confined to the focal plane. This confinement of light excitation is particularly relevant to avoid off-target toxicities. For example, in the treatment of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), TP excitation allows for the preservation of healthy tissues that have absorbed some PS and lie within the optical beam path, while still allowing for effective treatment of the target site [62]. Starkey et al. [63] demonstrated in murine xenograft models that TP-PDT could efficiently be used in vivo to induce tumor regression at depth. They showed that irradiating the mouse from the ventral side could treat a tumor located on the dorsal side. The first studies of TP excited PS were reported in the 1980’s, and were performed mainly using Nd:YAG lasers [64]. These results were controversial because ambient water molecules efficiently absorb the Nd:YAG laser emission (1064 nm) and induce hyperthermia in tissues, as was shown by Marchesini et al. [65]. In 1995, Lenz et al conducted a study of TP activated PDT in rat ears, and compared several PS including hematoporphyrin derivative (HPD) and phtalocyanine while controlling for the hyperthermia effect. Even though fluorescence intensity measurements demonstrated that TP processes could excite the PS, no cell killing was observed in these studies [66]. This pointed to the fact that TP excitationhttp://www.thno.orgTheranostics 2016, Vol. 6, Issueof a commonly used PS was not sufficient to induce PDT phototoxicity in vivo. Following this study, several commonly used PSs were investigated for TP-PDT, but the results mainly demonstrated that the efficiency was too low to induce cytotoxicity. Hence, commonly used PSs including PpIX, Photofrin or Visudyne, cannot be considered serious candidates for TP-PDT [67-69]. Several approaches have been investigated to improve the PS-TP absorption cross section [70] and during the last decade, several newly designed molecules have been synthesized as summarized in Table 1. The TP absorptioncross-section as well as the singlet oxygen generation quantum yield have to be considered when evaluating the overall utility of the newly designed PSs for type II TP-PDT. An effective TP-PDT agent requires both the maximal TP absorption cross-section (gold nanorods for example) and a sufficient 1O2 quantum yield (porphyrin derivatives, for example). Despite a noteworthy increase in the TP absorption cross-section, the overall anti-tumor PDT efficacy usually remains low thereby limiting the use of TP-PDT.Figure 5: A. Three different ways to excite PSs for PDT using NIR radiation. Method 1 relies on direct two-photon excitation of the PS that, once excited, can undergo type I or type II photodynamic processes involving reactive molecular species and singlet oxygen. Methods 2 and 3 involve a nanotransducer. In the second scenario, the nanotransducer absorbs the NIR radiation through two-photon processes and transfers part of the energy to excite the PS either through a radiative or a non-radiative mechanism. The nanotransducers involved may be either organic chromophores that have a high TP-absorption cross-section, or optically active nanoparticulate entities such as Gold Nanorods (GNR), quantum dots (QD) or carbon quantum dots (CQD). Method 3 illustrates the use of up-converting nanoparticles that successively absorb two NIR photons through a metastable energy state and transfer part of this energy to the PS. B. This figure illustrates three ways t.